Edmund I, Athelstans successor, was murdered in a brawl with an outlaw in his own hall; his sickly brother, Eadred, lost York for a time to the murderous Norseman, Eric Bloodaxe. Aftermath. The wheel-head crosses that marked their open-air sites of worship show the transitional nature of this conversion: the carved Odin cross at Kirk Andrea in the Isle of Man with ravens croaking on a heathen gods shoulder, while on the other side Christ looks down in majesty; the Gosforth cross in Cumberland where the resurrected Saviour Baldur the Beautiful of northern legend reborn tramples the dragons and demons of Hell; Surt the fire-god, Fenris the wolf, and Loki the serpent. The ideal of patriotism first began to take vague shape in mens minds, superseding the older conception of tribal kinship. Even its early kings had borne names which were not Teuton, like Cerdic, Cynric, Caelwyn, and Celtic place- names were intertwined mysteriously in its western shires with English: Axe and Exe, avon for river, coombe for valley. The very word entered England through their speech. It was as though the Norman knights, the most acquisitive in Europe, were trying to offset their outrages by the orthodoxy of their ecclesiastical establishments and, while they stormed their way into their neighbours lands, to buy an entry to Heaven. Elsewhere the storm the English had stilled raged unabated; the Vikings, driven from their prey on one side of the Channel, fell with equal fury on the other. A dozen Winchester, the royal capital, York, Norwich and Lincoln, Gloucester, Chester, Canterbury, Thetford, Worcester, Oxford, Ipswich and Hereford had perhaps three or four thousand inhabitants, and one, the self-governing port of London, four or five times as many. Ethelred joined the force, and divided the army into two halves, one of which he would command. They were not delicate craftsmen like the English; their chief resource was to build immensely thick walls, and several of their grander achievements fell down. With their round bullet-heads, blue eyes and long aquiline noses, they looked like intelligent birds of prey. But they had infinite ambition and a sense of space and grandeur. The Vikings typically lived to be around 40-50 years old. A similar process had long been taking place on the Continent. As a result, though a country of little account at the worlds edge, her wealth rapidly increased. Credit: British Library. They never left anyone in any doubt as to what they wished them to do. Eardwulf sought to aid the Danes against King Edward, and he proposed a plan to take Winchester without bloodshed. Under Alfred she had helped to save Christendom, as she had done two centuries earlier in the days of Bede and Boniface. For if Canute had conquered England, in a wider sense England conquered him. To matters of theology and philosophy, like their Irish neighbours, they had devoted much thought; alone among northern nations they possessed the priceless heritage of the scriptures in their native tongue. The murder of the fifteen-year-old king Edward the Martyr made a deep impression; worse deed, wrote the chronicler, was never done among the English. In the sinister light of what happened afterwards it seemed even worse in retrospect than at the time. Other heathens attacked a divided Christendom from the east. Above all, they had energy. Puttocks End, Cow Common, Crabs Green, Woolards Ash, Doodle Oak names of Essex fields and hamlets in the reign of Elizabeth II were given them when the athelings of Wessex sat on the English throne. The century of Athelstan and Edgar saw a new flowering of Anglo-Saxon art. But when under her last athelings she no longer proved capable of giving leadership, she found herself, as though by some inescapable law of her being, receiving it from others. For the long reign of the half-brother who succeeded him was one of the most disastrous in English history. A rapid assault on the English kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia followed, and by 871 Wessex, the southernmost kingdom, was the only one left independent. Before Ashdown, Ethelreds forces had already fought the Danes at Reading, but had been beaten back by the Viking assault. The great vassals of the Crown had absorbed everything else. There was little else to redeem the record of the next twenty years. Other heathens attacked a divided Christendom from the east. Then the kings young son, Edmund Ironside, put up a fight worthy of Alfred himself against Sweyns son and successor, Canute. He was a soft, devout, peace-loving man, with a clerks long tapering fingers, a rosy face and flaxen hair that turned with age to a beautiful silver. These plundering Magyars, or Hungarians as they were called, swept through East Francia or Germany and, With its fine craftsmen and the rule of its strong kings, England was beginning once more to accumulate treasures: to become a rich land worth plundering as she was before the Danes attacked her. Henceforward he made no distinction between his new countrymen and his old. The Churchs success was only slow and partial. His uncle, Athelstan, was the patron of the Welsh prince, Hywel the Good, who attended meetings of the English Witan and gave Wales her first code of law. Wessex, Mercia, and East Anglia were now confirmed as Saxon kingdoms . It proved a wise choice. To make doubly sure of divine intervention he concealed some sacred relics under the cloth of the table on which the Englishman swore. by Ollie Nichols. On April 23rd, 1016 St. Georges Day Ethelred died and Edmund succeeded. The Normans founded the duchy of Normandy and sent out expeditions of conquest and colonization to southern Italy and Sicily and to England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Finding from isolated raids on the coast that her people were no longer invincible, they struck in 991 at her south-eastern shires. They were masters, too, of law and rhetoric and, in their own estimation at least, of courtesy. TheSack of Winchesteroccurred in 911 AD when the Dyflin Viking army of Sihtric Caech launched a surprise attack on the West Saxon capital of Winchester and sacked and captured the city. The Kingdom of Wessex (/ w s k s /; Old English: estseaxna re [westsksn rite], lit. Its wealth, so much superior to that of Normandy, seemed a standing invitation. Hoping to influence the hostile Witenagemot's decision, he had the West Saxonfyrdoccupy the Mercian city of Aylesbury to keep order as secessionist ealdormen plotted against him and the city began to starve due to a lockdown caused by a plague outbreak. So thoroughly did they absorb that of the Frankish-Gaulish folk among whom they settled that within a century of their occupation of Normandy scarcely a word of their old Norse tongue was in use. But the Norsemen, whose own land had so little to offer, were not yet prepared to settle down. They rode at will across Sussex and Hampshire, moored their fleet in Poole harbour, burnt Norwich and Thetford, beat the fyrd at Penselwood in the heart of Wessex, and rode past Winchester flaunting the plunder of Berkshire as they returned in triumph to their ships. Greater London, Hertfordshire, Surrey). Arthur Bryant looks at how The Bones of Shire and State were formed before the Normans came. It sought also, by an appeal to conscience, to present knightly power as a trust. In the middle of the eleventh century a few hundred of them succeeded in seizing the south of Italy from the Byzantine Greeks. It was a result of the cumulative alienation of royal estates caused by the difficulty of raising revenue to pay for public services which had been going on for generations and which deprived the monarchy of its chief and almost only source of income. But there are also examples of upper class Vikings who lived longer for instance Harald Fairhair, who was King of Norway for more than 60 years. Their buildings expressed their religion. Mercia was one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the Heptarchy. Seven years later, when the last of them died as he stood at his drink at Lambeth, the Witan chose as successor the forty-year-old Edward, son of Ethelred the Unready by his second wife, Emma of Normandy. Ivories and jewelled crucifixes, golden and silver candelabra, onyx vases and elaborate wood-carvings, superbly embroidered vestments, stoles and altar cloths adorned the churches and the halls and hunting lodges of the great. He went into Cumberland, the chronicler wrote, and ravaged it well nigh all. His crowning act of folly occurred in 1002 when he gave orders for a massacre of the Danes living in York, among them the sister of the king of Denmark. So did the divisions or ridings into which they split the southern part of Northumbria, the juries of twelve leading men employed in the administration of their towns and wapenstakes, and their habit of majority decision. With their hard Norse brilliance, they rode their horses through the waves of battle as their pirate forbears had sailed their ships. It is the story of the struggle between Saxons and Danes in 9th-and 10th-century England, when England was not one nation but a series of independent kingdoms variously overrun or ravaged by Danes. Did Winchester fall to the Danes? 2012-2023 On Secret Hunt - All Rights Reserved For three years the two great soldiers, Englishman and Dane, fought each other among the forests and marshes of southern England. Absorbed in works of piety, he left its affairs to the great earldormen and his Norman favourites. The worst humiliation came in 1012 when, after a delay in the payment of a danegeld, the invaders pounced on Canterbury and carried off the primate, Alphege, and most of the monks and nuns. The Vikings initiated the attack by firing arrows into a crowd of city dwellers in the marketplace, having infiltrated the undermanned city while Edward was still in Mercia. Ignoring the claims of Norman duke, Norwegian king and the young atheling grandson of Edmund Ironside the last survivor of the ancient line whom Edward had lately invited to England they elected Harold Godwinson as king. Archbishop Dunstan himself was a craftsman and loved to fashion jewellery and cast church-bells. But as soon as they had spent the money they returned for more, harrying the countryside until a new ransom or danegeld was raised. Whats The Difference Between Dutch And French Braids? Canute established his main court in England, at Winchester, which became the capital of his huge northern empire. Yet the feudal knight, while he helped to save and strengthen Europe, added to the problem of its government. Semi legendary early Viking king, not a lot is known definitively about Ragnar Lothbrok. We will send you the latest TV programmes, podcast episodes and articles, as well as exclusive offers from our shop and carefully selected partners. Like laissez-faire in a later age, eleventh-century feudalism suffered from being too exclusively based on self-interest. Then a Danish herald asked that the English should withdraw to allow his countrymen to cross and battle to be joined. Behind the solemn rites the royal prostration and oath, the archbishops consecration and anointing, the anthem, Zadoc the Priest, linking the kings of the Angles and Saxons with those of the ancient Hebrews, the investiture with sword, sceptre and rod of justice, the shout of recognition by the assembled lords lay the idea that an anointed king and his people were a partnership under God. He won a decisive victory in the Battle of Edington in 878 and made an agreement with the Vikings, creating what was known as the Danelaw in the North of England. A few years after the great king had been laid in his grave at Winchester, one of their leaders, Rollo, secured from Charles the Simple ruler of all that remained of Western Francia a permanent settlement in the lower Seine basin which was called after them Normandy. Following the wishes of their . Alfreds most famous victory came at Ethandun in 878, but the Battle of Ashdown, fought seven years earlier on 8 January 871 when Alfred was a 21-year old prince, was equally significant in stopping the momentum of the invading Danes. Ruthless, entirely without sentiment, and, though passionate, self-possessed and cool, they had the simplicity of genius. . Their lasting legacy was the formation of the independent kingdoms of England and Scotland. With the spirit they troubled themselves little; they were a practical folk who loved clear definitions. The word cross, derived from the Latin crux, was introduced by these Irish evangelists, gradually taking the place of the Anglo-Saxon rood. It first appeared in northern names like Crosby and Crossthwaite. Politically this reversal of the unifying trend of the tenth century was to exact a heavy toll in racial war, cattle-raiding and border-baron brigandage. However, historically, there is only one piece of evidence that mentions them actually being covered in ink. Lacking the strong hand they respected, the Danes of northern England turned to their plundering kinsmen. The Anglo-Saxons believed that Wessex was founded by Cerdic and Cynric of the Gewisse, but this may be a legend. But a band of his followers closed round the corpse and, dying to the last man, gave the Danes such grim war-play that they were unable to follow up their victory and scarcely, it was said, man their ships to sail home. But in one State at least the little warlike duchy of Normandy it early established a working and mutually profitable partnership with the knightly class. Like their Norse forbears, they would go to the worlds end for plunder. Background For a generation the Danes feasted on the carcass of a rich, leaderless land. The monasteries again fell into decay, the farms were plundered, the peasants taxed into starvation and sold as slaves. It was after the model of one of their abbeys, Jumi. At a meeting of the Witan at Oxford he swore to govern his new realm by the laws of King Edgar. However, the Viking Brida came across the former commander of the Mercian Guard, Eardwulf, who had went into exile after he was discovered to have killed Aethelred. He even succeeded in persuading his uncle to promise it him though it was not by English law his to promise. The future of European society lay with whoever could discipline and ennoble feudalism. So in the next century did a later emperors intervention at the head of his knights to rescue the papacy from the degrading control of the Roman mob. Like their Norse forbears, they would go to the worlds end for plunder. Some of the earldormen and the feeble kings favourites threw in their lot with the enemy, shifting from side to side in selfish attempts to increase their dominions. Other bands of Moslem fanatics, camped in the hills of northern Italy, raided the Alpine passes. The Danes withdrew from Winchester without the need for a final assault, settling in their new lands in Northumbria, where Sihtric became King of Jorvik. With their round bullet-heads, blue eyes and long aquiline noses, they looked like intelligent birds of prey. It tried to make knight errantry a Christian pursuit: to turn the aggressive, acquisitive Frankish freebooter, armed. Taken over from Essex in the 8th century, including London (approx. The skeletons that the archaeologists have found, reveals, that a man was around 172 cm tall (5.6 ft), and a woman had an average height of 158 cm (5,1 ft). Here, translated from the chronicle, is the story of that invasion of Wessex in AD 1001 A.D. 1001. With his horse, lance, sword and shield, and leather and chain-armour hauberk, he was the answer to the invading horde from which the West had suffered so long. They were what the Romans had been a thousand years before, the natural leaders of their age. They returned in 876, but were forced to withdraw. He died at forty, his work incomplete and most of his mighty projects still a dream. Afterwards, Brida led her men in desecrating the Christian gravesites around Winchester, hoping that this blatant sacrilege would encourage the Saxons to attack Winchester. It set aside days and seasons for a truce of God when war was forbidden on penalty of expulsion from its communion. Although we remember it predominantly for its involvement in several conflicts during the medieval period, Edinburgh Castles history stretches some 3,000 years, from prehistoric times right up to the present day. The Last Kingdom season four spoilers follow. So did the sculptors of the Winchester School who carved the angel at Bradford-on-Avon, the Virgin and Child at Inglesham, and the wonderful Harrowing of Hell in Bristol cathedral. Home | About | Contact | Copyright | Privacy | Cookie Policy | Terms & Conditions | Sitemap. Header image credit: Alfred the Greats statue at Winchester. The 6-3, 229-pound quarterback completed 64.9 percent of his passes during his four seasons with the Wildcats with 5,876 yards, 46 touchdowns and 25 interceptions. Englands only respite was when Ethelred, bleeding her people white with taxes, bribed the Danes to withdraw. He is the only English monarch known as 'the Great'. His troops moved into the Berkshire hills, where he hurriedly assembled some of the local levies to fight in a desperate attempt to halt the Danes. Sometimes they made peace with the locals and decided to settle (in Old English word is saeton). The word cross, derived from the Latin crux, was introduced by these Irish evangelists, gradually taking the place of the Anglo-Saxon rood. It first appeared in northern names like Crosby and Crossthwaite. As they sat, in mantles of brightly coloured silks fastened with golden collars and garnet-inlaid brooches, listening to song, harp and minstrelsy, the princes and earldormen of Wessex were served from polished drinking - horns chased with silver and wooden goblets with gold. The Danes were a North Germanic tribe inhabiting southern Scandinavia, including the area now comprising Denmark proper, Yorkshire, and the Scanian provinces of modern-day southern Sweden, during the Nordic Iron Age and the Viking Age. Six month later, after five astonishing victories at PenseRvood on the borders of Somerset and Wiltshire, at Sherston, on the road to London, at Brentford. It was in the region now known as the English Midlands. The story of the Vikings in Britain is one of conquest, expulsion, extortion and reconquest. The failure of the Danes to make any more advances against Alfred was largely a result of the defensive measures he undertook during the war. By the eleventh century the only dominion, save the royal title, left to Charlemagnes last descendant, the king of the West Franks, was the hill town of Laon. The Sack of Winchester occurred in 911 AD when the Dyflin Viking army of Sihtric Caech launched a surprise attack on the West Saxon capital of Winchester and sacked and captured the city. It was part of her kings policy to establish in every shire at least one town with a market-place and mint where contracts could be witnessed and reliable money coined. Other Scandinavian words were being woven into the map of northern England; Like their kinsfolk in the old Danelaw and East Anglia, these northern dalesmen pirates brood though they were had a great respect for law, so long as they themselves made it. was raised. Uhtred's daughter Stiorra was taken by Sihtric as part of the peace terms, but the two fell in love and eventually married. The Danes began to make seasonal raids on the shrines and religious houses, the main centres of wealth and culture along the coast of England, in the last years of the eighth and early ninth centuries; but when about 850 their aim changed from the gathering of plunder to permanent conquest, the Humber and its tributaries were once again an . It produced the very anarchy it was designed to avoid. Who says you cant have brains and brawn. But they had infinite ambition and a sense of space and grandeur. Brida tempted Sihtric into taking Winchester to seize its spoils and bring his men further security and a land to call their own. It was with the knights of East Francia or Germany that Athelstans brother-in-law, Otto the Saxon, overthrew the Magyar horsemen on the Lechfeld in 955, and re-established the imperial throne of the Germans. Levis jumped sharply in betting . However, Uhtred slipped out of the city and returned with a new fyrd loyal to Aethelflaed, and Edward ultimately decided to let Aethelflaed rule Mercia as his ally. Wessex was now a settled land of villages, farms and fields whose names still figure on our maps. It sought also, by an appeal to conscience, to present knightly power as a trust. But to the finer minds of the vigorous eleventh-century England was a land where the enthusiasm of saints and scholars had become lost in a sluggish stream of petty provincial interests; where married canons lived on hereditary endowments, and boorish, provincial noblemen, sunk in swinish drunkenness and gluttony, sold sacred benefices; where the very archbishop of Canterbury was a simoniac and uncanonically appointed; and where bucolic warriors, too conservative to change, still fought on foot with battle-axes. His elaborate smith-made protection, his mobility and striking-power, and his life-long dedication to arms, made him despise mere numbers. In the years between 871 and 886, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions eight occasions when a peace was made. Alfred was not the archetypal burly and bearded Saxon warrior, but a man of keen intelligence who won battles through cunning rather than brute force. The revenge taken by the bloodthirsty king, Sweyn Forkbeard, was as terrible as deserved. After the collapse of Canutes empire the Normans turned their gaze on England. 793 - AD. Their land was famous for beef, bacon and wheaten cakes, for ale, mead and perry, and for plentiful butter and cheese; a writer recorded that, while Italians cooked with oil, the English cooked with butter. In 886 Alfred took London from the Vikings and fortified it. Godwin was not the only subject able to defy the Crown. ges, that Edward the Confessor, himself half a Norman, modelled his abbey church at Westminster. Preferring strength on the throne to weakness, and unity to division, it selected as king, not one of Edmunds infant sons, but the young Dane, Canute. It tried to make knight errantry a Christian pursuit: to turn the aggressive, acquisitive Frankish freebooter, armed cap-a- pied, into the Christian champion, driving back the heathen, defending Holy Church and punishing iniquity. Then the kings young son, Edmund Ironside, put up a fight worthy of Alfred himself against Sweyns son and successor, Canute. True to Alfreds policy of trust, he is said to have granted the king of the Scots and Picts the Lothian plain between Tweed and Forth in return for his allegiance. Fans may be interested to hear the city eventually became what is known today as York in the northeast of England. After the reconquest of the Danish lands in the early 10th century by King Edward the Elder, Mercia was ruled by ealdormen for the Wessex kings, who became kings of all England. According to medieval sources, Ragnar Lothbrok was a 9th-century Danish Viking king and warrior known for his exploits, for his death in a snake pit at the hands of Aella of Northumbria, and for being the father of Halfdan, Ivar the Boneless, and Hubba, who led an invasion of East Anglia in 865. The Witenagemot agreed, causing Edward to order his army to take over the city in the absence of the mutinous Mercian guard and amid the disorganization of the Mercian fyrd after Tettenhall. Edgar, who was called its Caesar, was rowed up the Dee at Chester in 973 by eight vassal kings, who between them did fealty for almost the entire island. The era of Lindisfarne and raiders from the sea is long past - by this point in history, the Vikings in Britain are settlers, lords and kings. An Italian who witnessed that astonishing conquest has left us their picture: dominant, harsh, revengeful, cunning, frugal, yet capable of lavish generosity when fame was to be won by it. In the chapel-royal of the Norman robber king at Palermo and in the cathedral his heirs built at Monreale they infused the graceful sunshine art of the Saracens and Byzantines with their own northern vigour. 1066) At the end of the century they gave up their vagrant life and settled down as Christians on the Pannonian plainhenceforward Hungary. Olaf Tryggvason, together with Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark and ruler of much of Norway, attacked and destroyed Bamburgh "seizing much plunder". His descendants, the fair-haired athelings of the House of Wessex, produced in little more than half a century three other great rulers Alfreds son, Edward the Elder, his grandson Athelstan, and his great-grandson Edgar. Yet all this growing polity and wealth depended in the last resort on the ability of English kings to keep the good order that Alfred had won. Anything that may be counselled never stands for a month. The English were not only outmanoeuvred; they were betrayed. The Danes did not give up their designs on England. Three years later, following a dispute in the Witan over the succession, his eldest son was stabbed near Corfe by a thane of the Queen Mothers household. On April 23rd, 1016 St. Georges Day Ethelred died and Edmund succeeded. With his acceptance of a Christian crown the ravaging of Christendom from the north ceased. He was merely an inflated landowner with proprietary rights in the human beings who lived on his estates. King Athelstan took back the kingdom of York from the Vikings. He was more like an abbot to them than a king, and they called him the Confessor. So were the boundaries of shire and hundred, and the customs themselves far older than their new Christian forms with which men celebrated the changes of the year. And if at first the self-interest was mutual, it soon became contradictory and self-destructive. The bulk of the raids came from Denmark, Southern Norway and Sweden (the areas around the Kattegat and Skagerakk sea areas). By the eleventh century there were more than seventy towns in the country. Not all the princes of the House of Wessex were great men or able to ride the tides of anarchy in an age still dominated by the Viking invasions. Once more, scenting weakness as vultures carrion, the Norsemen returned. Under his inconstant, passionate impulses, and those of his brutal favourites, Englands new-found unity dissolved. Chester sent its earldorman a thousand salmon a year, and Petersham in Surrey a thousand lampreys. Yet socially it was to enrich, not impoverish, the island, fostering a regional consciousness in which much was preserved of poetry, song and character that would otherwise have perished. Such were Plough Monday, when the village lads, with ribbons and cracking whips, resumed work after the twelve days of Christmas; May Day when they marched to the woods to gather greenery and danced round the May-pole; Rogationtide when the parish bounds were perambulated by wand-bearers led by the priest, and small boys were beaten over boundary-stones; Whitsun when the Morris dancers leapt through the villages with bells, hobby-horses and waving scarves; Lammas when the first bread was blessed, and the Harvest Home when the Corn Dolly effigy of a heathen goddess was borne to the barns with reapers singing and piping behind it. They did not even found a dynasty. Being king both of England and Denmark, he tried to make the North Sea an Anglo-Danish lake and England the head of a Nordic confederation stretching from Ireland to the Baltic. After that sacramental act loyalty to the Crown became a Christian obligation. first entered the English language to describe the arrogance of the Normans to whom the Confessor granted estates and bishoprics. Soon afterwards the chief of them, Hugh Capet, duke of the Isle of France, usurped the vacant and now hollow dignity. Nowhere was the monastic reforming movement so enthusiastically supported by the laity, so many monasteries built, and such learned and pious clerks appointed to well-endowed benefices. The Sack of Winchester occurred in 911 AD when the Dyflin Viking army of Sihtric Caech launched a surprise attack on the West Saxon capital of Winchester and sacked and captured the city. The Frankish knights obligation to his overlord was the counterpart to the loyalty to the Crown Alfred had tried to create in England. So, at least in the south, was that of the countryside. If he was invulnerable to his countrys foes he was equally so to its rulers, and a scourge to everyone within reach of his strong arm. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Danes "kept the place of slaughter", meaning that they won the battle, but they suffered heavy losses, including thelwold and a King Eohric, possibly of the East Anglian Danes. Barred out of Europe, they turned once more to England. Aftermath. Next year they slew its bishop. Old forts were strengthened and new ones built at strategic sites, and arrangements were made for their continual manning. During the first half of the eleventh century these Scots, as they now called themselves, made repeated raids into Durham. This marked the start of a long struggle . When the enemy is eastwards, wrote the Anglo-Saxon chronicler, then our forces are kept westward; and when they are southward, then our forces are northward. Did Winchester fall to the Danes? The average Viking was 8-10 cm (3-4 inches) shorter than we are today. Indeed, Ethelred drove them to it, harrying their homesteads with the same barbarity as the invaders harried his own. He was so devout that he refused to give his wife a child and his realm an heir. Like Canute, Rollo the Viking and his descendants, in acquiring a Christian land, had become fervent champions of the Church. Its wealth, so much superior to that of Normandy, seemed a standing invitation. Their national achievement in vernacular scholarship and literature was unique; their craftsmanship in sculpture, embroidery, goldsmiths and coiners work most skilful and sensitive. They received an unpleasant awakening. For three years the two great soldiers, Englishman and Dane, fought each other among the forests and marshes of southern England.
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